Harriet Tubman Essay -- essays research papers

Harriet Tubman was an important African American who ran away from slavery and guided runaway slaves to the north for years. During the Civil War she served as a scout, spy, and nurse for the United States Army. After that, she worked for the rights of blacks and women.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Harriet Tubman was really named Araminta Ross, but she later adopted her mother’s first name. She was one of eleven children of Harriet Greene and Benjamin Ross. She was five when she worked on a plantation in Dorchester County, Maryland. She was first a maid, and a children’s nurse before she started working as a field hand when she was twelve. While she was thirteen, her master hit her head with a heavy weight. The hit put permanent neurological damage (she couldn’t learn as well as before), and she passed out without warning throughout the rest of her life.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In 1844 she got permission from her owner to marry a free black man, John Tubman. For the next five years Harriet Tubman lived in a state with only a little slavery. She remained a slave, but her master allowed her to live with her husband. But the death of her master three years after she was married made Tubman’s status uncertain. There were rumors going around the slave houses that the slaves would be sold to settle the estate. Tubman ran away to the north and became a free person. In 1849 he moved to Pennsylvania, but came back to Maryland after about two years hoping that her husband would...

Oral traditions Essay

Many ancient scholars believed Africa had no history prior to colonialism because there was no documented evidence. Professor A.P. Newton, who was a distinguished British historian in the early 20th century, believed that there was no African history because most of the African society was illiterate before the European intrusion. ‘History’, he said, ‘only begins when men take to writing.’ He, as well as others who had the same opinion, failed to realize that African communities existed long before colonialism and so had their own history, even though it had not been put into writing at the time. Oral traditions have played and continue to play important roles in the history of Africa as well as its present. Songs, folklores, superstitions, etc. are just some of the things that have been passed from generation to generation orally. We see the evidence of some of these superstitions in J.P. Clark’s _Abiku_ as well as Wole Soyinka’s _Abiku_. Both poems are based on traditional superstitions and it is evident from the title, _Abiku_, which is a word from the Yoruba language of Nigeria that is used to describe a child that dies and is reborn, usually multiple times. It is believed that such children are not of the human world, but rather belong to the spirit world and so they keep going back and forth from one world to the other unless the child’s family is able to make the child stay in the human world, using traditional methods most times. These beliefs and actions are results of oral traditions and, even with the rise of western education in Yoruba communities and Nigeria in general, continue to be upheld by some people. Clark and Soyinka are evidence of the continued dependence and belief in oral traditions by a lot of Africans, even after extensive western  education. These Africans could be doing this as an indirect rebellion against western ideas and principles that have sought to ridicule and destroy African culture. During the colonial era, the Europeans did their best to destroy African culture, especially those that had to do with superstitions and religious beliefs that did not correspond with western principles. Concepts like reincarnation were frowned upon heavily by the European missionaries seeking to change the religious beliefs of Africans and since most aspects of life were based on religion at the time, changing one’s religious beliefs meant changing one’s political, social and economic beliefs as well. However, with the rise of cultural nationalisms, Africans began to reject European standards as the ideal and focus on bringing African culture back to the forefront. Hence, we see Soyinka and Clark as well as many other African poets bringing their cultural superstitions to their literary works, even though most of the m are written in European languages. In Soyinka’s _Abiku_ poem, almost every line is made up of cultural beliefs and practices as they relate to the _Abiku_ child. He even dips into non-African oral traditions in the line that says, â€Å"remember/ this, and dig me deeper still into/ the god’s swollen foot.† (14-16). Here, Soyinka is referring to Oedipus, the Greek mythological figure, and his use of this in his poem suggests that he wants to show that oral tradition is not just an African phenomenon but rather, exists in different cultures all around the world. While, he doesn’t expand on this line, it is important because it stands out from the rest of the poem as it is not connected to Yoruba tradition at all and it makes known to its readers the fact that oral traditions are universal. Also, Soyinka writes his poem from the subject’s point of view as a means of humanizing the character. The concept of _Abiku_ is usually explained as an other- worldly phenomenon, which made it easier for a lot of people to disassociate themselves with the idea. However, Soyinka writes his poem in first person in order to make known to people the fact that _Abiku_ children do exist and they are, in fact, human beings. He brings the _Abiku_ child to the forefront and though the rhetoric is tinged with superstitions and  cultural traditions, the fact that it is being told from the child’s perspective is a humanizing effort. There is no doubt that the poem emphasizes cultural and spiritual notions, especially through the child, however, the poem’s use of words like â€Å"Mothers† (line 26) paints a human picture in the minds of the readers. The juxtaposition of spiritual and human language used in the poem lets the readers know that both the spiritual and the human are present in this _Abiku_ child. Therefore, the poet brings to light the idea that the spiritual i.e. traditional and the human i.e. rational can exist and coincide with one another. He is saying that African culture can exist side by side with western culture and one doesn’t have to diminish the other, which is the direct opposite of what was preached by European missionaries. Also, it is important to note that these two poets as well as most African writers are invested in the concept of Africanism. Keeping African cultures alive is important and we see the poets using their poems to remind Africans and the world in general that African culture still exists and has not been destroyed by urbanization. Oral traditions have never been completely accepted as adequate sources with which to make any kinds of analyses because of the fickle nature of the human memory and so, writing these poems allows the poets show the readers that the culture is still there and these stories and beliefs have not been forgotten. It was important for Africans in historical times to repeatedly acknowledge the oral traditions so they would not forget any parts of it and this is also one of the reasons why African writers usually add some elements of oral tradition into their works. A lot of African communities did not have any means of recording their culture for future generations so they just made sure the younger generations became aware of these traditions from the early stages of their lives so these traditions became engrained in their minds by the time they were adults. However, with the colonization of Africa, a lot of Africans are now able read and write these oral traditions and because of this easy access, a lot of Africans have become unaware of a lot of cultural traditions that would have been passed orally. So, the writers include oral traditions in their written works to bring these stories, beliefs, practices, etc. back into the minds of Africans and the world. This is why  Soyinka and Clark include some traditional processes in their poetry. Soyinka writes about the charms that people believed would keep the _Abiku_ child from going back to the spirit world†¦ â€Å"Must I weep for goats and cowries/for palm oil and sprinkled ash?† He takes the reader into the world of the _Abiku,_ using cultural rituals, which then reminds the Africans who had forgotten and informs those who were not privy to this information initially. Clark takes his readers into the immediate environment of the _Abiku_ child, both the physical environment and the spiritual environment†¦ â€Å"Do stay out on the baobab tree/follow where you please your kindred spirits/if indoors is not enough for you.† In conclusion, oral traditions are very important in African culture as well as other cultures around the world and the use of written language in passing oral traditions has been helpful in bringing forgotten histories back into the minds of its people. BIBLIOGRAPHY Fage, J. D., and British Broadcasting Corporation. Africa Discovers Her Past. London: Oxford University Press, 1970. Henige, David P. The Chronology of Oral Tradition: Quest for a Chimera. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1974. Adesanmi, Pius. You’re Not a Country, Africa: A Personal History of the African Present. Johannesburg: Penguin Books (South Africa), 2011.

Motivation and the Brain Research Paper

The brain regulates the choice of a person to be physically active. Stimuli from the environment and from the tissues excite receptors and nerves which in turn excite the muscles. The central nervous system has three general areas that are associated with the complexity of the movement and the familiarity of the various stimuli. The areas include the spinal cord which handles simple reflex actions, the lower brain which organizes more complex responses while the cerebral cortex controls the most complicated responses and stores general motor programs. The spinal cord consists of two-way tracks of nerve fibers which carries both sensory fibers as well as motor fibers between the periphery and the brain. Continual flow of afferent information from the sensory receptors to the higher levels of control is permitted by the spinal cord. The spinal cord also contains the efferent motor fibers which carry command information from the cerebrum to the periphery organs or muscles. The sensory n erves have one of its branches which end in the gray matter of the spinal cord while the other branch is carried to the higher levels. The lower brain processes certain afferent sensory information in order to modify a movement for greater efficiency. Basically, the lower brain is made up of the brain stem, the cerebellum and the basal ganglia. Several pathways of motor control are either directly or indirectly under the control of the lower brain. The brain stem connects to the spinal cord and all the sensory and motor information must pass through it. The brain stem has a specialized collection of neurons known as reticular formation. The neurons helps to coordinate skeletal muscle function, maintain muscle tone, to control cardiovascular and respiratory functions and to determine the state of consciousness of a person.   It is highly involved in ballistic movements such as running, jumping and agility training. The cerebellum assists the primary motor cortex and the basal ganglia to adjust the actual movement patterns being produced to conform to the desired motor patterns established by the higher brain. It al ways monitors and modifies movement therefore making it highly involved in integrating all specific elements of technique into any exercise. The basal ganglia help the higher brain with control of complex motor activities and almost all sensory and motor nerve fibers connecting the cerebral cortex with the spinal cord pass between the basal ganglia. Therefore, one of the primary functions of the basal ganglia is to initiate and control repetitive and continuous movement patterns such as walking and running. The cerebral cortex is the higher brain and contains two hemisphere connected by the corpus callosum which allows the two to communicate with each other Wilmore states, that the cerebral cortex is the conscious brain and allows people to think, to be aware of the stimuli and to voluntary control their movements. The cerebral cortex controls the most complex motor patterns and is in charge for the initiation of all voluntary movements. The two function areas concerned with the movement are the motor cortex and the somatic sensory cortex (Wilmore, et. al, 2008). The cerebral cortex processes afferent input from the somatic sensory cortex and coordinates the various activities of the motor cortex with all the area of the lower brain and the spinal cord simultaneously. The motor cortex is divided further into three basic areas which include the primary motor cortex, the premotor area and the supplementary area. The primary motor cortex helps to control fine voluntary movements and to org anize reflex actions while the premotor area helps to coordinate motor commands and muscle activity. The supplementary area helps with the adjustments in postures and the maintenance of balance while exercising (Wilmore, et. al, 2008). Diencephalon is the region of the brain that is composed of the thalamus and the hypothalamus. The thalamus is a sensory integration center that is important and regulates what sensory input reaches the conscious brain thus very important for motor control. The hypothalamus is below the thalamus and is responsible for maintaining homeostasis by regulating all processes that affects the body internal environment such as regulating the blood pressure, body temperature, thirst, emotions among others. The spinal cord, the lower brain and the upper brain together with the rest of the central nervous system and proprioceptors continually attempts to learn, store, recall, and modify movement to help our bodies move and interact within our changing environment more efficiently. The whole control system is constantly being programmed and reprogrammed on a daily basis to adapt to changes within the active and passive systems as well as changes in the environment. The reduced dopamine or loss o f dopamine receptors in the brain appears to be related to the decline in physical activity associated with age. Genes that might help explain motivated running or spontaneous physical activity have yet to be identified. The brain also has a pain control system called an analgesia system. The enkephalins and ÃŽ ²-endorphin are important opiate substances that act on the opiate receptors in the analgesia system to help reduce pain. Wilmore states that research has demonstrated that exercise of long duration increases the natural levels of these opiate substances (Wilmore, et. al, 2008). The three systems are affected by changes in a person such as when they grow or shrink gains strengths or lose and improve or damage the working parts. Ultimately, the control system integrates improvements or compensate for the deficits. This process continues throughout a person’s life and requires constant coordination of the neuromuscular system which reinforces the need for consistent and efficient exercise (Aaberg, 2006). People receive sensory information about their present environment and feedback to the central nervous system continually. There are three primary sources for sensory information which are from visual input, vestibular input and through Proprioception. Proprioception is the input from peripheral sensory receptors and joint mechanoreceptors. The skin and the cutaneous tissues have sensory receptors that sense changes in pressure and movement of soft tissue. The mechanoreceptors located in the muscles, joints and connective tissues give continual informat ion and feedback on joint position, stability, movement, muscle length, tension and pressure from external and the internal forces. In order to trigger the necessary reflex actions and generate the appropriate motor commands to move, stabilize and control the body, sensory information from all the three sources is processed at different levels of the central nervous system (Aaberg, 2006). Reflex actions are extremely sensitive to specific stimuli and can be trained for higher efficiency. The studies show that the sensory and the motor areas of the adult brain can adapt according to how they are used in five days (Aaberg, 2006). In conclusion, there is growing evidence that lack of physical activity may lead to brain dysfunctions including those that affects the motivational domain (Zelick, 2007). According to Zelick, recent studies have linked brain circuits that regulate feeding, mood, pain, reward, liking and wanting to those regulating physical activity such as exercise, suggesting positive motivation modulating properties of exercise (Zelick, 2007). Emotional and motivational disturbances are related to several common brain disorders such as autism (Zelick, 2007). References Wilmore, J., David L. Costill, D., W. Larry Kenney, W. (2008). Physiology of sport and exercise. Canada: Human Kinetics. Aaberg, E. (2006). Muscle mechanics. New York: Human Kinetics. Zelick, P. (2007). Issues in the Psychology of Motivation. New York: Nova Publishers.